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Leopold I of Belgium

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"King Leopold I" and "Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld" redirect here. For the king of Hungary, Croatia and Bohemia, see Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor. For the nephew of Leopold I, see Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha.

Leopold I of Belgium
Leopold I, c. 1860–65
King of the Belgians
Reign21 July 1831 – 10 December 1865
PredecessorMonarchy established
Erasme Louis Surlet de Chokier (as Regent)
SuccessorLeopold II
BornPrince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld
(1790-12-16)16 December 1790
Ehrenburg Palace, Coburg, Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, Holy Roman Empire
Died10 December 1865(1865-12-10) (aged 74)
Castle of Laeken, Brussels, Belgium
Burial
Church of Our Lady of Laeken
Spouses
​
​
(m. 1816; died 1817)​
​
​
(m. 1832; died 1850)​
Issue
Names
  • German: Leopold Georg Christian Friedrich
  • French: Léopold Georges Christian Frédéric
  • Dutch: Leopold Joris Christiaan Frederik
  • Leopold George Christian Frederick
House
FatherFrancis, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld
MotherCountess Augusta Reuss of Ebersdorf
ReligionLutheran
SignatureLeopold I of Belgium's signature
Military career
Allegiance

Leopold I (French: Léopold; born Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld; 16 December 1790 – 10 December 1865) was the first king of the Belgians, reigning from 21 July 1831 until his death in 1865.

The youngest son of Francis, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, Leopold took a commission in the Imperial Russian Army and fought against Napoleon after French troops overran Saxe-Coburg during the Napoleonic Wars. After Napoleon's defeat, Leopold moved to the United Kingdom, where in 1816 he married Princess Charlotte of Wales, the only child of the British Prince Regent (later George IV). Leopold and Charlotte's marriage was happy, but it ended after a year and a half when Charlotte died after delivering a stillborn son. Leopold continued to enjoy considerable status in Britain.

After the Greek War of Independence (1821–1830), Leopold was offered the throne of Greece under the 1830 London Protocol that created an independent Greek state, but turned it down, believing it to be too precarious. Instead, he accepted the throne of Belgium in 1831 following the country's independence in 1830. The Belgian government offered the position to Leopold because of his diplomatic connections with royal houses across Europe, and because as the British-backed candidate, he was not affiliated with other powers, such as France, which were believed to have territorial ambitions in Belgium which might threaten the European balance of power created by the 1815 Congress of Vienna.

Leopold took his oath as King of the Belgians on 21 July 1831, an event commemorated annually as Belgian National Day. The following year, he married Princess Louise of Orléans, with whom he had four children: Louis Philippe, Leopold, Philippe, and Charlotte. The King had another two sons, George and Arthur, by his mistress Arcadie Meyer. Leopold's reign was marked by attempts by the Dutch to recapture Belgium and, later, by internal political division between liberals and Catholics. As a Protestant, Leopold was considered liberal and encouraged economic modernisation, playing an important role in encouraging the creation of Belgium's first railway in 1835 and subsequent industrialisation. As a result of the ambiguities in the Belgian Constitution, Leopold was able to slightly expand the monarch's powers during his reign. He also played an important role in stopping the spread of the Revolutions of 1848 into Belgium. He died in 1865 and was succeeded by his son Leopold II.

Early life

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Ehrenburg Palace in Coburg, where Leopold was born in 1790, pictured c. 1900

Leopold was born at Ehrenburg Palace in Coburg in the small German duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld in modern-day Bavaria on 16 December 1790.[1] He was the eighth child and youngest son of Francis, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, and Countess Augusta Reuss of Ebersdorf.[2] In 1826, Saxe-Coburg had acquired the city of Gotha from the neighbouring Duchy of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg and gave up Saalfeld to Saxe-Meiningen, becoming Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. The dynasty of this name was therefore founded by Leopold's eldest brother, Ernest I, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, the father of Albert, Prince Consort of the United Kingdom. Leopold was baptised on 17 December 1790, with his baptismal name remaining the same as his birth name, in honour of Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor.[3] Leopold's paternal grandmother, Princess Sophie Antoinette of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, often assisted in parenting duties and signalled that he was her favourite grandson.[4]

From 1797, Leopold was tutored by Charles-Theodore Hoflender, a graduate of the University of Jena and a professor in Coburg. Leopold, under Hoflender, studied Biblical history, Christianity, mathematics and languages, including Greek, Latin and Russian.[5] In 1799, Leopold and his siblings also became tutored by Johann Philipp Hohnbaum, who specialised in teaching physical education and in teaching history of Great Britain, the Holy Roman Empire and Saxony.[6] Hohnbaum cited that Leopold was fascinated by history and conflicts such as the Thirty Years War.[7] Lutheran pastor Gottlieb Scheler also taught Leopold catechism. Historian Olivier Defrance wrote that Scheler's teaching of Pietism had a lasting influence on Leopold.[5] From 1804, aged thirteen, Leopold kept a diary and learnt English, French and Italian.[8] Leopold often heard stories of military experience from his great-uncle, Prince Josias of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld,[9] and inherited his father's passion for pigeon racing and floriculture.[7]

Military career

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Russian Imperial army

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In 1796, Leopold's older sister, Princess Juliane of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, married Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich of Russia, making the House of Romanov her house by marriage.[10] The following year, at just six years old, Leopold receives a Russian military title. He achieves the rank of captain and subsequently is given an honorary commission of the rank of colonel in the Izmaylovsky Regiment, part of the Imperial Guard, in the Imperial Russian Army, on 7 May 1979 and 11 September 1798. Leopold also began to specialise in the Russian language.[11] On 19 March 1801, he is transferred to the Imperial Guard Cavalry Regiment, when six years later, aged twelve, he received a promotion to the rank of Major General.[1]

In 1805, at fourteen years old, Leopold accompanied his older brother, Ernest, Hereditary Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, to Moravia, where the headquarters of Alexander I, Emperor of Russia were located, however Leopold nor Ernest partook in combat.[12] Following the Battle of Austerlitz, during the Napoleonic Wars, French troops occupied the Duchy of Saxe-Coburg in 1806.[13] Leopold and his father, Francis, took refuge in Saalfeld, however Francis died on 9 December 1806, six days before the Treaty of Poznan signed the Duchy to the Confederation of the Rhine, thus abolishing the Duchy's sovereignty.[14] When Napoleon learned that Ernest had previously fought against the French, he removed the Duchy from the Confederation, before seizing the properties of Leopold's family.[15] Leopold and his mother were confined to a section of one of the confiscated castles and were not let out. During this time, Leopold wrote to his sister, Princess Sophie of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld: "The poor country of Cobourg is terribly penalized; It must pay 981,000 francs; it's huge. Our coffers and our estates, in short all our income, were confiscated by the Emperor Napoleon. No appanage can be paid."[16] After intervention by the Russian Emperor, Napoleon declared the Duchy to be part of the Confederation of the Rhine once more by adding it to the Treaty of Tilsit. Ernest as the new reigning Duke was allowed to return to Coburg in July 1807.[17]

Napoleon and Alexander I depicted at the Congress of Erfurt

Leopold soon went to Paris where he became part of the Imperial Court of Napoleon. Napoleon's wife, Joséphine de Beauharnais, took a protective attitude of Leopold, who met Napoleon in October 1808.[18] According to historian Carlo Bronne, Napoloen was in awe of Leopold and briefly considered making him is aide-de-camp.[19] In Spring 1808, Leopold contracted typhoid fever and when he recovered, he shortly became regent of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld when Ernest visited Russia.[20][21] Napoleon later offered Leopold the position of adjutant, but he refused and instead went to Russia to take up a military career in the Imperial Russian cavalry, which then later went to war with France. Leopold accompanied Emperor Alexander I in September 1808 and represented his home Duchy at the Congress of Erfurt, where Napoleon failed to strengthen Franco-Russian relations while the Duchy's interests were ignored. He wrote to Alexander I for assitance, leading to Napoleon demanding that he resign from the Russian army.[22]

Napoleonic battles

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In Autumn 1810, Leopold was asked by Ernest to find financial aid for the Duchy, which was lacking soldiers and had been badly affected by war and its previous occupation.[23][24] Leopold met with Napoleon, who refused to aid the Duchy, but offered that Leopold join the French army. Leopold strongly refused, as did Joséphine.[25] In May 1811, Leopold went to Munich and although he was unsuccessful in securing funding, he managed to persuade Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria to return small territories that Bavaria had previously annexed from the Duchy. Leopold was hailed in the media for this achievement.[26] Following his visit to Munich, Leopold travelled to Vienna, then to various Italian cities during the winter.[27] He wrote: "The years of 1810 and 1811 were quite calm. I was disappointed to find myself forbidden from serving in Russia by Napoleon who held my brother responsible, because he knew that otherwise he would not have been able to prevent me."[28] In March 1813, Leopold was finally allowed to rejoin the Russian Imperial army.[29]

During 1813, Leopold was an active member of the Russian army and participated in the liberation of German states from Napoleonic France. On 28 February 1813, after the signing of the Treaty of Kalisz, Leopold said to Emperor Alexander, "I was the first German Prince who joined the liberating army".[30] Leopold participated in multiple conflicts against French troops, including the Battle of Lützen, Battle of Bautzen and Battle of Leipzig. He worked closely with his brother-in-law, Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich of Russia, during this time. On 26 August 1813, Leopold helped Duke Eugen of Württemberg escape his occupiers. Three days later, Leopold was nearly captured by French forces.[31] Later, on 29 and 30 August 1813, Leopold fought in the Battle of Kulm as the head of his cuirassier division. The battle was a French loss, and Leopold was decorated for his participation with the Cross of St. George, the Order of St. Andrew, the Order of Alexander Nevsky, the Order of Saint Anna and the Kulm Cross. Additionally, he was promoted to Major General in the Russian Army[32].

Leopold and Konstantin Pavlovich were unsuccessful in reuniting with Leopold's sister, Julianne, in Bern in January 1814. Leopold entered France with the Russian army on 30 January.[33] On 1 February, he participated in the Battle of Brienne, which resulted in the occupation of Troyes. Additionally, during the Battle of Arcis-sur-Aube, Leopold commanded the right wing on the army, with France successfully defeated, before Paris was marched on four days later.[34] On 31 March, Leopold too entered Paris, as Napoleon fell, to which Leopold commented: "This is the extent to which prudence has humiliated this tyrant, to the horror of all those who would want to follow his example."[16] Leopold and Ernest represented the Duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld at the Congress of Vienna. The Kingdom of Prussia, which Leopold and the Russian Imperial army had fought alongside, was opposed to any gains made by the Duchy, which had been against the annexation of Saxony, an ally of France.[35] During the Congress, Leopold held audience with Archduke John of Austria and Chancellor Klemens von Metternich.[36] When Napoleon returned from exile in March 1815, Leopold commanded a Russian cavalry brigade as a lieutenant general, aged 25, on the outskirts of France, as Napoleon lost the Battle of Waterloo.[1]

Marriage to Charlotte of Wales

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Engraving of the wedding of Charlotte and Leopold in 1816
Naturalization of Prince Leopold Act 1816
Act of Parliament
Parliament of the United Kingdom
Long titleAn Act far exhibiting a Bill in this present Parliament, for naturalizing His Serene Highness Leopold George Frederick Duke of Saxe, Margrave of Meissen, Landgrave of Thuringuen, Prince of Cobourg of Saalfeld.
Citation56 Geo. 3. c. 12
Dates
Royal assent28 March 1816
Commencement28 March 1816
Repealed5 August 1873
Other legislation
Repealed byStatute Law Revision Act 1873
Relates toNaturalization of Prince Leopold (No. 2) Act 1816
Status: Repealed
Naturalization of Prince Leopold (No. 2) Act 1816
Act of Parliament
Parliament of the United Kingdom
Long titleAn Act for the Naturalization of His Serene Highness Leopold George Frederick Duke of Saxe, Margrave of Meissen, Landgrave of Thuringuen, Prince of Cobourg of Saalfeld; and settling his Precedence.
Citation56 Geo. 3. c. 13
Dates
Royal assent29 March 1816
Commencement29 March 1816
Repealed5 August 1873
Other legislation
Repealed byStatute Law Revision Act 1873
Relates toNaturalization of Prince Leopold Act 1816
Status: Repealed

In Spring 1814, Leopold accompanied Emperor Alexander to England, where Princess Charlotte of Wales was seeking a spouse. Charlotte was the only legitimate child of Prince George, Prince Regent (later George IV), and therefore second in line to the British throne. George had hoped Charlotte would marry William, Prince of Orange, but Charlotte favoured Leopold. Emperor Alexander was also opposed to Charlotte marrying William as he believed a future personal union between Great Britain and the Netherlands would become a maritime superpower and dominate the seas.[37] Leopold and Charlotte lost contact for months, and the latter often wrote to the former asking that he return to Britain to propose to her. Leopold received British citizenship in March 1816.[38] Finally, the pair married at Carlton House in London on 2 May 1816.[3] Although George was displeased, he found Leopold to be charming and possessing every quality to make his daughter happy, and so approved their marriage. The same year Leopold received an honorary commission to the rank of Field Marshal and Knight of the Order of the Garter.[1] The Regent also considered making Leopold a royal duke, the Duke of Kendal, though the plan was abandoned due to government fears that it would draw Leopold into party politics and would be viewed as a demotion for Charlotte.[38] The couple lived initially at Camelford House on Park Lane,[39] and then at Marlborough House on Pall Mall.[40]

Leopold and Charlotte moved into Claremont House in August 1816. When Charlotte later suffered a miscarriage, Leopold became concerned for her health. When Charlotte again fell pregnant, she was advised by her obstetrician, Sir Richard Croft, to drastically reduce her diet, however Leopold's physician, Christian Stockmar, heavily disagreed with this advice.[41] Charlotte gave birth to a stillborn son on 5 November 1817. She suffered complications and, just after midnight on 6 November, also died. Leopold was said to have been heartbroken by Charlotte's death.[42]

Deep down, I was made for a life of family intimacy [...]. I wanted to be quiet and happy with my mouse [Charlotte] and nothing more [...] Charlotte was a very pretty woman and she possessed to a very high degree of what the English call countenance.

— Leopold writing to his sister upon Charlotte's death.[43]
Portrait of Leopold by George Dawe c. 1818–1825

Had Charlotte survived, she would have become queen of the United Kingdom on the death of her father and Leopold presumably would have assumed the role of prince consort, later taken by his nephew Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Stockmar, who became Leopold's private secretary, advised him to stay in Britain rather than returning to Coburg and despite Charlotte's death, George granted Leopold the British style of Royal Highness by Order in Council on 6 April 1818.[44] However, the British public was opposed to the annuity of 50,000 pounds sterling paid by the British government to Leopold, who was no longer even a member of the British royal family. From 1828 to 1829, Leopold had an affair with the actress Caroline Bauer, who bore a striking resemblance to Charlotte. Caroline was a cousin of Stockmar. She came to England with her mother and took up residence at Longwood House, a few miles from Claremont House. But, by mid-1829, the liaison was over, and the actress and her mother returned to Berlin. Many years later, in memoirs published after her death, she declared that she and Leopold had engaged in a morganatic marriage and that he had bestowed upon her the title of Countess Montgomery. He would have broken this marriage when the possibility arose that he could become King of Greece.[45] The son of Stockmar denied that these events ever happened, and indeed no records have been found of a civil or religious marriage with the actress.[46]

Following Charlotte's death, Leopold assisted members of his family in acceding to various European thrones. He encouraged his sister, Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, to marry George's brother, Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, after her first husband, Emich Carl, 2nd Prince of Leiningen, had died. Victoria and Edward were the parents of the future Queen Victoria, who was born in 1819 and lost her father in 1820. Leopold allowed her and her mother to live with him in Claremont House and convinced George, who was now monarch, to give apartments in Kensington Palace to them.[47] Leopold went on to support George's wife, Caroline of Brunswick, in marital disputes and even visited Caroline during George's crowning, leading to distain from George. Leopold nonetheless remained in Britain for another fourteen years after the death of Charlotte, however regularly travelled Europe.[48]

In 1819, Leopold received Niederfüllbach Castle in Coburg and began preparing to make it his main residence. Leopold's brother, Ernest, had married Princess Louise of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg, who went on to inherit the Duchy of Saxe-Gotha, though Ernest insisted he reigned over it. From thereon, Ernest's Duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld and Louise's Duchy of Saxe-Gotha merged to form the Duchy of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Before the couple divorced in 1826, Ernest and Louise had two sons, the future Ernest II, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, and Albert, who went on to marry Queen Victoria.[49] Whilst in Paris, Leopold was encouraged to marry Marie-Caroline of Bourbon-Two Sicilies, Duchess of Berry, the widowed daughter-in-law of Charles X of France, however Leopold declined due to differing views and opinions on matters with the French royal house.[50]

Refusal of the Greek throne

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Following a Greek rebellion against the Ottoman Empire, Leopold was offered the throne of an independent Greece as part of the London Protocol of February 1830, which stipulated that the new monarch could not be of Great Britain, France or Russia.[51][52]

Though Leopold resided in Britain, he was not considered a member of the British royal family as he was not of the House of Hanover. He was quite popular across Europe for his role in the Napoleonic wars and, according to Defrance, was often mentioned in Greek "anglophile circles".[53] Despite popularity, he was often in dispute with George and the British government, who supported Leopold as a candidate for the Greek throne and subsequently demanded he give up his British possessions.[54][55] Leopold eventually agreed and accepted this offer from Duke of Wellington, the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, and his Cabinet. However, Leopold was still anxious to accept the Greek throne and demanded certain conditions, including having the Greco-Ottoman border changed in Greece's favour by amending the border crossing the Achelous River and Valley, receiving financial and military aid while the state was being set up, and having protection of Greece by the Great Powers from foreign aggression. He argued this zone of protection should be extended all the way to Samos and Crete, whose populations had been active in the Greek War of Independence.[52][56] Most of his demands were agreed to in a series of discussions, with particular priority in protecting the majority Christian inhabitants of the Greek islands. With the Great Powers mainly satisfied, they signed new international protocol, officially giving Leopold, "the son-in-law of George IV", the title of "Sovereign Prince of Greece". A few days later, on 28 February 1830, Leopold officially accepted the Greek crown.[57]

Leopold contacted Ioannis Kapodistrias, the de facto Governor of the Greek State, who he had known since the Napoleonic Wars. Leopold asked of him in his letters to provide assistance in his accession to the throne, however Kapodistrias' reply on 6 April was not of reassuring nature. Kapodistrias insisted that Leopold's border changes did not satisfy Greece, provoked the Ottoman Empire and would need to be ratified by the legislature. Contrary to historians Michel Lhéritier and Édouard Driault, Defrance claims that Kapodistrias's motive was to possibly intimidate Leopold. Kapodistrias also very strongly encouraged Leopold to convert to Greek Orthodoxy to the wishes of the Greek people, but Leopold was displeased by this. Later that month, the Greek Senate drafted a memorandum addressed to Leopold to welcome him and give a list of requests of the Greek people, including the border issue, the inclusion of Samos, Crete and Psara in the new Greek nation and the religion of Leopold. From London, Leopold worked to achieve these requests and even succeeded in increasing loans granted to Greece from 12 million to 60 million francs, however he failed to resolve the border dispute and annex Crete from the Ottoman Empire. Feeling the Greek population was too demanding and precarious, Leopold turned down the offer to become King of Greece on 17 May 1830.[58] The role would subsequently be accepted by Otto of Wittelsbach in May 1832 who ruled until he was finally deposed in October 1862.[59] Otto would then be replaced by the House of Glücksburg, with Prince Wilhelm of Denmark becoming George I of Greece.[60]

Reign

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Main article: Belgium in the long nineteenth century
Prince Leopold, by Samuel William Reynolds, c. 1820s

Acceptance of the Belgian throne

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Search for a monarch

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See also: Belgian Revolution and Constitution of Belgium

At the end of August 1830, rebels in the Southern provinces (modern-day Belgium) of the United Netherlands rose up against Dutch rule. The rising, which began in Brussels, pushed the Dutch army back, and the rebels defended themselves against a Dutch attack. International powers meeting in London agreed to support the independence of Belgium, even though the Dutch refused to recognize the new state.[61] In November 1830, a National Congress was established in Belgium to create a constitution for the new state. Fears of "mob rule" associated with republicanism after the French Revolution of 1789, as well as the example of the recent, liberal July Revolution in France, led the Congress to decide that Belgium would be a popular, constitutional monarchy.[62] The choice of candidates for the position was one of the most controversial issues faced by the revolutionaries. The Congress refused to consider any candidate from the Dutch ruling house of Orange-Nassau. Some Orangists had hoped to offer the position to William I or his son, William, Prince of Orange, which would bring Belgium into personal union with the Netherlands like Luxembourg. The Great Powers also worried that a candidate from another state could risk destabilizing the international balance of power and lobbied for a neutral candidate.[63]

Leopold on a 40 franc coin (1835)
Leopold on a 40 franc coin (1835)

Eventually the Congress was able to draw up a shortlist. The viable possibilities were felt to be Auguste of Leuchtenberg, son of Eugène de Beauharnais, and Louis, Duke of Nemours, son of the French King Louis-Philippe. All the candidates were French and the choice between them was principally between choosing the Bonapartism of Beauharnais or Leuchtenberg and supporting the July Monarchy of Louis-Philippe.[64] Louis-Philippe realized that the choice of either of the Bonapartists could be first stage of a coup against him, but that his son would also be unacceptable to other European powers suspicious of French intentions. Nemours refused the offer.[65] With no definitive choice in sight, Catholics and Liberals united to elect Erasme Louis Surlet de Chokier, a minor Belgian nobleman, as regent to buy more time for a definitive decision in February 1831.[66]

Due to opposition of previous candidates, the Belgian Congress proposed Leopold, who had been proposed at an early stage, but had been dropped because of French opposition.[64] The problems caused by the French candidates and the increased international pressure for a solution led to his reconsideration. Leopold was known by the Congress due to his military past and a delegation of Belgian representatives was sent to London to meet Leopold. On 22 April, he was finally approached by said delegation at Marlborough House to officially offer him the throne.[67] Leopold read over the Treaty of the Eighteen Articles prior to it being signed on 9 July 1831, officially separating Belgium and the Netherlands. The treaty also included the possibility of a repurchase of Luxembourg by Belgium. Despite all this, Leopold remained reluctant to accept the Belgian throne.[68]

Accession

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Leopold taking the constitutional oath during his enthronement, by Gustaf Wappers

On 16 July 1831, Leopold travelled from Dover to Calais on the royal yacht Crusader, deciding to accept the throne. The next day he drove by car to Dunkirk and entered Belgium at De Panne.[69] Whilst travelling to Brussels on horseback, he was greeted with patriotic enthusiasm along his route.[70] The accession ceremony took place on 21 July on the Place Royale in Brussels. A stand had been erected on the steps of the Church of St. James on Coudenberg, surrounded by the names of revolutionaries fallen during the fighting in 1830. After a ceremony of resignation by the regent, Leopold, dressed in the uniform of a Belgian lieutenant-general, swore loyalty to the constitution, under the supervision of congressman Jean-Baptiste Nothomb, and became king.[71] Leopold said in his speech: "I have come hither to work for the welfare of this country, and to preserve, by my acceptance of the crown, the peace of Europe; whatever can contribute to these two things, I will do it; anything beyond that will be harmful."[72] Leopold's enthronement has generally been used to mark the end of the revolution and the start of the Kingdom of Belgium and is celebrated each year as the Belgian national holiday.[73]

Consolidation of independence

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Although the Belgian Constitution to which Leopold swore gave the monarch command of the army only as an honourary title, Leopold signalled on multiple occasions that he would personally place himself in charge of the army if Belgium were to be attacked. The Belgian population was widely content with this due to his previous military experience. Less than two weeks after Leopold's accession, on 2 August 1831, the Netherlands invaded Belgium, starting the Ten Days' Campaign. Leopold immediately requested that Belgian Prime Minister, Joseph Lebeau, contact the foreign offices in London and Paris for assistance. Leopold here followed the Constitution, which forbade him personally from calling upon foreign powers without permission from the legislature, which at this time had not yet been elected.[74] The small Belgian army was overwhelmed by the Dutch assault and was pushed back, and Leopold took command of a small force that defended the outskirts of Brussels. Leopold once again appealed to the French for support. The French promised support, and the arrival of their Armée du Nord in Belgium forced the Dutch to retreat. Great Britain refused to intervene.[75] Eventually, the Netherlands accepted a diplomatic mediation and returned behind to the pre-war border. Skirmishes continued for eight years, but in April 1839, the two countries signed the Treaty of London, whereby the Dutch finally recognised Belgium's independence.[76]

Leopold's personal monogram

Leopold's attitude during the war earned him both praise and criticism in the Belgian media. For example, an article in L'Indépendance Belge read, "The King of the Belgians, [...] showed rare composure and intrepidity. Always in the most perilous places, he was often obliged to fulfill both the functions of generalissimo and those of second lieutenant."[77] However, an article the following day critiqued, "The approach of our troops repaired everything, but what is less repairable is the failure that the Belgians suffered in the opinion of Europe."[78] Following the war and large losses that Belgium sufferred, Leopold reorganised national defence, disbanded the Garde Civique and legislated the army's numbers at 80,000 men. When the Dutch abandoned Belgium, they left a garrison force that closed the Scheldt to Belgian shipping, meaning that the port of Antwerp was effectively useless.[79] The Netherlands and the Dutch colonies in particular, which had been profitable markets for Belgian manufacturers before 1830, became totally closed to Belgian goods. The French Army of the North, which had helped Belgium considerably in the Ten Days' Campaign, defeated the Dutch army the following year and lifted the siege of Antwerp on 15 November 1832. However, the Dutch managed to burn down much of the city before its liberation, and subsequent fighting remained until the Netherlands was finally defeated on 23 December 1832. The Dutch government continued to refuse to recognise the Treaty of the Eighteen Articles and William I of the Netherlands organised in May 1833 an embargo of Dutch coasts. Belgian, British and Dutch delegations subsequently met in Zonhoven to resolve the matters, but Leopold left unsatisfied as no agreements were definitively made.[80]

In April 1834, anti-orangist riots broke out in Brussels and soon developed into protests in favour of Leopold. Several of the former residences of William's family in Belgium and hotels in Brussels were ransacked, leading to Leopold travelling in on horseback and convincing the protestors to disband by giving a speech. Leopold's advisors believed that peace had been restored and suggested he left, but soon after the Hotel of Trazegnies was also ransacked and the military were sent in.[81] Over 115 people were arrested and seven were wounded, before the Belgian legislature passes a law that would punish pro-Orangist propaganda.[82] Subsequently, Leopold took charge of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs to deal with diplomatic clashes with the Netherlands, including the matter of Belgian claims to Dutch Limburg, which Leopold was unable to obtain, thus ruining his prospect for a new railway line through the region. He was successful however in reducing the country's debt to the Netherlands from 8,400,000 to 5,400,000 florins.[83] The Netherlands would finally go on to recognise Belgian independence by signing the Treaty of London in 1839. The Belgio-Dutch border was agreed to on 8 August 1843 with the Treaty of Maastricht.[84]

Leopold was generally unsatisfied with the amount of power allocated to the monarch in the Constitution, and sought to extend it wherever the Constitution was ambiguous or unclear while generally avoiding involvement in routine politics.[85]

Marriage, family and residences

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Though Leopold was now monarch, due to his widowed status, there was concern over the issue of dynastic succession with Leopold having no issue. To strengthen ties with France, Leopold considered marrying a French princess and approached the King of the French, Louis Philippe I, who agreed to Leopold marrying his daughter, Louise of Orléans.[86] They married on 9 August 1832 at the Château de Compiègne and participated in a civil ceremony, a Catholic service and a Lutheran blessing.[87] Although the marriage was arranged, author Patrick Roegiers writes that the pair found happiness in each other. Soon after their wedding, Leopold asked the government if Louise could be appointed regent while he travelled, but they unanimously opposed. Leopold and Louise gave birth to their first son, Louis Philippe, on 24 July 1833, however the infant died nine months later on 16 May 1834 from an inflammation of mucous membranes.[88] Two years later, on 9 April 1835, Louise gave birth to a second son, Leopold. Two more children, Philippe and Charlotte, followed on 24 March 1837 and 7 June 1840 respectively.[89][90]

Of his three royal residences, the Royal Palace of Antwerp, the Royal Palace of Brussels and the Castle of Laeken, Leopold chose the latter as it most remained him of Claremont House. There, Leopold and Louise lived a generally relaxed and quiet life, with Louise stating that "The King, his dog and I" only lived there.{{sfn|Bronne|1947|p=98|} According to Bronne, they would wake up mid-morning, attend mass and then read through their mail, which was sent in from Paris. Louise was often excited to read Parisian mail as it often came from her own family. When receiving politicians, officials and members of Belgian aristocracy, Leopold would often engage in cue sports.[91]

In 1844, Leopold met Arcadie Claret, the eighteen year old daughter of an officer in the Belgian army.[92] They very soon after had an affair and Leopold encouraged her to marry to avoid being caught out. Claret married Ferdinand Meyer in 1845, who managed the royal stables and agreed to be her husband in return for financial compensation. However, Meyer soon left for Coburg to allow Leopold and Claret to continue their relationship. Claret was placed in a house near the Royal Palace of Brussels and was discovered as Leopold's mistress by the media, who also highlights Louise's declining health. Claret's house was attacked by the public for her use of palace carriages when going out. Leopold, per his advisors, encouraged Claret to have more restraint when travelling, but she left Belgium for Germany in October 1850. She eventually returned to Belgium and moved into Château of Stuyvenberg.[93] Leopold had two illegitimate sons, George and Arthur, by Claret.[94][95] George von Eppinghoven was born in 1849, and Arthur von Eppinghoven in 1852. At Leopold's request,[95] in 1862 his two sons were created Freiherr von Eppinghoven by his nephew, Ernest II, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. In 1863, Claret was also created Baronin von Eppinghoven.[96]

Domestic policy, politics and infrastructure

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While the drafters of the Belgian Constitution aimed to make Belgium a constitutional monarchy, making the monarch a neutral and impartial arbiter, Leopold had managed to assign himself significant powers, such as assuming multiple ministries and taking charge of many diplomatic, administrative and military domains.[97] From 1831 to 1846, politics in Belgium was divided between Liberal and Catholic parties, along with unionist governments. Catholicism had always been the dominant religion in Belgium, yet Leopold had always refused to convert from his Lutheran faith and favoured the Liberals.[85][98] To appease to the public, he sought to maintain cordial relations with the Holy See, though historian Louis de Lichtervelde suggests it may have been to reassure and consolidate his own power against "the only other force [Catholicism]" that had more popularity of him. Leopold also believed that the Church would act as a means of unity for Belgium, which was linguistically divided.[98]

Leopold depicted on the first Belgian postage stamp, issued in 1849

Historians believe that the fall of the Theux government in April 1840 was feared by Leopold as it was it marked the first time in modern Belgian history, and under his reign, that a government had collapsed.[99] Leopold was opposed to Lebeau forming government as his party had voted against Barthélémy de Theux de Meylandt, which caused the government's collapse. In 1846, the Party for Freedom and Progress convened to strengthen the cooperation between the executive and legislature, and as a result of new Bills passed by Charles Rogier's government, the role of the monarch was reduced and Liberals dominated politics, advocating for free trade, freedoms, liberties and secularisation.[100][101] During the second half of Leopold's reign, the Liberals remained in power. While meeting with the government, Leopold made it clear that he believed the appointment and dismissal of ministers was his prerogative per the Constitution, and demanded that he be informed in advance of all government, ministerial and administrative decisions.[102]

Throughout Leopold's reign, Belgium experienced economic and industrial progress, despite economic crises during the early decades of his reign. The period between 1845 and 1849 was particularly hard in Flanders, where harvests failed and a third of the population became dependent on poor relief, and have been described as the "worst years of Flemish history".[103] The economic situation in Flanders also increased the internal migration to Brussels and the industrial areas of Wallonia, which continued throughout the period.[104] Despite this, Leopold worked closely with the government to develop infrastructure, to which he promised in his enthronement speech: "Multiple efforts will be directed towards the improvement and extension of agriculture, commerce and industry; they contribute to spreading prosperity among the various classes of inhabitants and to cementing harmony."[105] In 1842, Leopold failed to pass laws to regulate child and women labour. He wanted to ban them from working in certain industries, such as harvesting in which he believe they dominated, however the Bill he proposed was defeated and child labour continued to be abused.[1] For example, in 1850, the coal industry employed nearly 3300 women, 4400 boys and 1221 girls under the age of sixteen in underground labour. In agriculture, similar statistics existed with harsh working conditions and low wages. An investigation was conducted in 1853 and 1854 by journalist Édouard Ducpétiaux found that the average Belgian worker had to devote 65.8% of their wage to basic needs. The issue of low wages was never recognised or tended to by Leopold.[106]

The opening of the first railway line connecting Belgium to continental Europe was promoted by Leopold. He was an early supporter of railways, and Belgium's first stretch of railway, between northern Brussels and Mechelen, was completed in 1835. When completed, it was one of the first passenger railways on the continent.[107] The development of railways allowed for the growth of the industry and in an 1847 speech, Leopold remarked: "Freight transport and railway revenues continue to increase at a remarkable rate. Measures are being prepared to increase them further and to introduce improvements in the operation of this important service."[108] Multiple historians attribute the development and production of cast iron, steel, coal, glassworks and cloth weaving to Leopold's reign. Earlier in 1835, Leopold had inaugurated the National Bank of Belgium, which solidified the 1832 creation and circulation of the Belgian franc. Leopold appeared on coinage and postage stamps, which had helped to congeal the legitimacy of his reign in the early years.[109]

Revolution of 1848

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Portrait of Leopold I of Belgium by Franz Xaver Winterhalter, c. 1840
Engraving of Leopold's theatrical offer in 1848 to abdicate if it was the will of the Belgian people

The success of economic reforms partially mitigated the effects of the economic downturn and meant that Belgium was not as badly affected as its neighbours by the Revolutions of 1848. Nevertheless, in early 1848, a large number of radical publications appeared. The most serious threat of the 1848 revolutions in Belgium was posed by Belgian émigré groups. Shortly after the revolution in France, Belgian migrant workers living in Paris were encouraged to return to Belgium to overthrow the monarchy and establish a republic. Around 6,000 armed émigrés of the "Belgian Legion" attempted to cross the Belgian frontier. The first group, travelling by train, was stopped and quickly disarmed at Quiévrain on 26 March 1848.[101] The second group crossed the border on 29 March and headed for Brussels. They were confronted by Belgian troops at the hamlet of Risquons-Tout and, during fighting, seven émigrés were killed and most of the rest were captured.[110] To defuse tension, Leopold theatrically offered his abdication, if this was the wish of the majority of his people.

The defeat at Risquons-Tout effectively ended the revolutionary threat to Belgium, as the situation in Belgium began to recover that summer after a good harvest, and fresh elections returned a strong Liberal majority.[110]

Foreign policy

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For his role in European affairs, Leopold was dubbed the "Nestor of Europe", after the wise mediator in Homer's Iliad.[111]. This was also due to his connection to other monarchs. For example, Leopold's niece was Queen of Great Britain, his nephew was Prince Consort of Great Britain and his nephew was the Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. He remained in close contact with his sovereign relatives, particularly Queen Victoria.[112] Historian Jean Stengers records that Leopold's intervention in European affairs was to look after Belgian interests, to look after British interests and to encourage peace to maintain the conservative order.[113] Not only did Leopold have high correspondence with other leaders, but he regularly travelled and made informal and state visits. Throughout his reign and particularly in the 1840s, a main goal of his was to repair Franco-British relations due to the Eastern question.[113] He organised a meeting between his father-in-law, Louis Philippe I of France, and his niece, Queen Victoria, in 1843 at the Château d'Eu, marking the first time in thirteen years that the House of Orléans received a foreign monarch. The following year, Louis Philippe visited Victoria in Britain, with Leopold and Louise organising his itinerary.[114] Moreover, with the rise of Prussia to the east of Belgium, Leopold worked to maintain amicable ties with the German states. In August 1843, along with members of the British royal family, Leopold travelled to Brühl and stayed at Stolzenfels Castle with the Prussian monarch and forty members of other German royalty. Notably, the Emperor of Russia, Nicholas I, did not attend despite his invite. In 1844, per Jules Van Praet, Russia and Belgium established relations.[115]

The rise of Prussia as the dominating German power continued to occur throughout the decades of Leopold's reign. The new German Confederation's legislature became the Frankfurt Assembly, which was the first pan-German parliament with representatives from each German state, including the German-speaking areas of the Austrian Empire.[116] Leopold's name was suggested as a potential candidate for the federal leader of the Confederation who would bear the imperial crown of Germany. Naturally, the entry of Belgium into the German Confederation was then discussed.[117] Leopold was opposed to both of these propositions as it was contravene Belgium's status as a neutral power and would diminish the independence of the country. The German Confederation nonetheless soon disbanded, though German Unification would later occur after Leopold's death.[118]

When Louis Philippe was deposed in the 1848 French Revolution, Leopold remained neutral and was one of the first heads of state to recognise the new French Republic.[119][118] While this pleased the new French government, it came as a shock to other European nations who had admired Belgian neutrality,[120] imposed by Article VII of the Treaty of London (1839).[121] While most historians have depicted Leopold as faithful to this, others have not, such as Belgian historian Jan Anckaer, who interprets Leopold's diplomatic efforts in the Second Egyptian-Ottoman War in 1840[122][121] and Belgium's manufacture of arms for Russia during the Crimean War as breaches of neutrality.[121] Following the July Monarchy, the Second French Empire was ignited, which worried the Belgian government. Immediately following the 1851 French coup d'état, Leopold sent Prime Minister Henri de Brouckère to Paris to meet the new Napoleon III to assure cordial relations.[119] Leopold saw the new regime in France as a threat and began limiting the number of French political refugees to maintain on the good side of Napoleon, who Leopold met in Calais in 1854. The following year, Leopold sent his eldest son to Paris for an exhibition as the official Belgian delegation.[123]

Furthermore, despite initial skirmishes at the start of his tenure, Leopold wanted to repair relations with the Netherlands.[124] In October 1859, Leopold sent his youngest son to The Hague on a state visit, where he met with the Dutch royal family. On 18 October 1861 in Liège, Leopold received William III of the Netherlands, who returned via Belgium after meeting with Napoleon III.[125] The day before the Belgian and Dutch monarchs met, Leopold wrote to Victoria: " will be very well received, his process is rightly appreciated here. Being received in the very country where you were Crown Prince is a little painful and you feel slightly embarrassed." The meeting is successful.[126]

Second marriage and family

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Leopold's funeral cortege in Brussels on 16 December 1865

Leopold married Louise-Marie of Orléans (daughter of Louis Philippe I) on 9 August 1832. They had four children:

Queen Louise-Marie died of tuberculosis on 11 October 1850, aged 38.[1]

Death and succession

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Coat of arms

Leopold died in Laeken near Brussels on 10 December 1865.[127] His funeral was held on 16 December, on what would have been his 75th birthday. He is interred in the Royal Crypt at the Church of Our Lady of Laeken, next to Louise-Marie.

Leopold was succeeded by his son, Leopold II, aged 30, who would rule until 1909.

Commemoration

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A monument in his memory was erected in Brussels at the initiative of Leopold II.[128]

Belgian naval vessels named in his honour include the Leopold I, a frigate acquired by Belgium in 2007. His monogram features on the flag of the Flemish town of Leopoldsburg. His likeness has also appeared on postage stamps and commemorative coins issued since his death.

Ancestry

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Notes

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References

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  108. ^ Jacques Payen; Bernard Escudié; Jean-Marc Combe (1988). The Locomotive in France; From the Origins to the Mid-XIX (in French). Lyon: Éditions du CNRS. p. 250. ISBN 9782222041900.
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  113. ^ a b Stengers 2008, p. 259-262
  114. ^ Bronne 1947, p. 171-172.
  115. ^ Bronne 1947, p. 173-174.
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  117. ^ Defrance 2004, p. 222.
  118. ^ a b de Lichtervelde 1929, p. 256.
  119. ^ a b Defrance 2004, p. 237.
  120. ^ Cite error: The named reference Deneckere was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  121. ^ a b c Anckaer, Jan (2014). "Dangerous Opportunities? Reassessing Belgian Neutrality during the Crimean War (1853–1856)" (PDF). Journal of Belgian History XLIV. 4: 70. Retrieved 1 June 2024.
  122. ^ Anckaer, Jan (2013). "3". Small power diplomacy and commerce. Belgium and the Ottoman Empire during the reign of Leopold I, 1831–1865. Istanbul: The Isis Press. ISBN 978-9754284898.
  123. ^ Defrance 2004, p. 254-257.
  124. ^ Bilteryst 2014, p. 105.
  125. ^ de Lichtervelde 1929, p. 333-334.
  126. ^ de Lichtervelde 1929, p. 334.
  127. ^ "Belgium – Last moments of King Leopold". The New York Times. 28 December 1865. Retrieved 7 July 2016.
  128. ^ "Monument à la Dynastie – Inventaire du patrimoine architectural". monument.heritage.brussels (in French). Retrieved 4 December 2023.

Bibliography

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